Types of Spectroscopy – Principles, Types, Steps, and Applications

Types of Spectroscopy – Principles, Types, Steps, and Applications

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Spectroscopy is one of the most powerful analytical techniques used in biology, chemistry, physics, and material sciences. It plays a vital role in understanding the structure, composition, and properties of matter by studying the interaction of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation with materials. In this detailed article, we will explore what spectroscopy is, how it works, its various types, principles, steps, and wide-ranging applications.

What is Spectroscopy?

Spectroscopy is the study of how matter interacts with electromagnetic radiation (light, X-rays, gamma rays, etc.). This interaction can involve absorption, emission, or scattering of radiation. By studying these processes, scientists can obtain valuable information about the composition, structure, and properties of substances.

  • Key Idea: Every substance interacts with light in a unique way, producing a specific spectrum (like a fingerprint). This spectrum can be analyzed to identify and quantify different materials.
  • Examples: Spectroscopy is used in identifying unknown compounds, studying stars in astronomy, analyzing proteins in biology, and detecting pollutants in the environment.

Why is Spectroscopy Important?

  1. Helps determine the chemical composition of substances.
  2. Reveals structural and electronic properties of molecules.
  3. Allows quantitative measurements (e.g., concentration of a substance in solution).
  4. Provides non-destructive analysis of valuable or rare samples.
  5. Has wide applications in medical diagnostics, pharmaceuticals, forensic science, astronomy, and environmental studies.

Instruments Used in Spectroscopy

To carry out spectroscopic studies, various instruments are used. Here are the main ones:

1. Spectrometer

  • A device that measures the differences in properties of matter when exposed to radiation.
  • Types of spectrometers:
    • NMR spectrometer – measures nuclear resonance frequencies.
    • Mass spectrometer – measures mass-to-charge ratio of ions.
    • Optical spectrometer – measures electromagnetic radiation (UV, visible, infrared).

2. Spectrophotometer

  • A special type of spectrometer used to measure absorption, reflection, and emission of light.
  • Widely used in laboratories to measure the concentration of samples based on light absorption.

3. Spectroscope

  • An optical device that measures properties of light across a specific spectrum.
  • Common in astronomy and chemistry for analyzing stars, gases, and chemical samples.

4. Spectrograph

  • Records light spectra using detectors.
  • Mostly used in astronomy to study chemical composition of stars and galaxies.

5. Spectra (Singular: Spectrum)

  • Refers to the range of wavelengths or frequencies absorbed, emitted, or scattered by a substance.
  • Types include absorption spectrum, emission spectrum, mass spectrum, and electron spectrum.

Types of Spectroscopy

Types of Spectroscopy
Figure: Types of Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy has many sub-disciplines, each based on the type of radiation used and the type of interaction studied. Below is a detailed explanation of the most important types.

1. Absorption Spectroscopy

Principle: When light passes through a sample, certain wavelengths are absorbed depending on the material’s structure. The absorbed wavelengths correspond to specific energy differences in the molecules.

Steps:

  1. Prepare sample and solvent.
  2. Place sample in a spectrometer.
  3. Measure absorbance across different wavelengths (200–800 nm).
  4. Plot absorbance vs. concentration graph to analyze unknown samples.

Applications:

  • Detecting and quantifying substances in samples.
  • Environmental monitoring of pollutants.
  • Determining atomic and molecular structures.

2. Astronomical Spectroscopy

Principle: Light from celestial bodies contains absorption and emission lines that provide information about their composition, temperature, and motion.

Steps:

  1. Collect incoming light using a telescope.
  2. Pass light through a diffraction grating.
  3. Analyze the dispersed wavelengths with detectors.

Applications:

  • Determining star composition, density, and temperature.
  • Studying galaxies and cosmic motion (redshift, Doppler effect).

3. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

Principle: Free electrons in atoms absorb UV or visible light, leading to an absorption spectrum that can be measured.

Steps:

  1. Convert liquid sample into vapor using flame or furnace.
  2. Pass specific wavelength light through sample.
  3. Measure absorbance to determine element concentration.

Applications:

  • Detecting metals in biological samples.
  • Analyzing water, soil, and pharmaceuticals for metal content.
  • Quality testing in metallurgy.

4. Circular Dichroism (CD) Spectroscopy

Principle: Measures differences in absorption of right- and left-handed polarized light by chiral molecules (like proteins).

Applications:

  • Studying protein secondary structures (α-helix, β-sheet).
  • Monitoring conformational changes in biomolecules.
  • Quality testing in pharmaceuticals.

5. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)

Principle: Measures impedance (resistance to electric flow) of a material using alternating current (AC) at different frequencies.

Applications:

  • Studying bacterial growth.
  • Cancer cell detection.
  • Testing coatings, polymers, and electrodes.

6. Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Spectroscopy

Principle: Detects unpaired electrons in paramagnetic substances when exposed to microwave radiation under a magnetic field.

Applications:

  • Studying metalloproteins.
  • Analyzing reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS, RNS).
  • Protein folding and enzyme catalysis studies.

7. Emission Spectroscopy

Principle: When excited electrons fall back to lower energy states, they emit light at specific wavelengths.

Applications:

  • Detection of metals and alloys.
  • Analyzing lead in petrol.
  • Agricultural and environmental studies.

8. Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)

Principle: Uses X-rays to excite atoms, releasing secondary X-rays that reveal atomic structure.

Applications:

  • Chemical composition of biological structures.
  • Environmental pollution studies.
  • Medical tissue diagnostics.

9. Fluorescence Spectroscopy

Principle: Molecules absorb light at one wavelength and re-emit it at another, producing fluorescence.

Applications:

  • Cancer diagnostics (benign vs malignant).
  • Detecting metals in water, air, and soil.
  • Used in HPLC detectors.

10. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy

Principle: Measures absorption of infrared light by molecules to identify functional groups.

Applications:

  • Studying polymers, organic and inorganic compounds.
  • Detecting hydrophobic membrane environments.
  • Used in gas chromatography.

11. Gamma-ray Spectroscopy

Principle: Detects gamma radiation emitted by radioactive isotopes during nuclear transitions.

Applications:

  • Nuclear structure analysis.
  • Space exploration (detecting water on planets).
  • Isotopic analysis of lunar and Martian rocks.

12. Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy

Principle: Measures vibrations of covalent bonds when exposed to infrared light.

Applications:

  • Identifying functional groups in organic compounds.
  • Diagnosing diseases via biomarker detection.
  • Protein characterization.

13. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)

Principle: Studies biochemical changes in tissues by analyzing hydrogen atoms under magnetic fields.

Applications:

  • Medical diagnostics with MRI.
  • Cancer research.
  • Metabolic profiling of blood serum.

14. Mass Spectroscopy (MS)

Principle: Molecules are ionized, and their mass-to-charge ratio is measured.

Applications:

  • Identifying unknown compounds.
  • Determining molecular weights and structures.
  • Detecting impurities in pharmaceuticals.

15. Molecular Spectroscopy

Principle: Studies molecular interactions with electromagnetic radiation, including electronic, vibrational, and rotational transitions.

Applications:

  • Determining atomic and molecular structures.
  • Analyzing gas and compound compositions.

16. Mössbauer Spectroscopy

Principle: Based on the Mössbauer effect, involving emission and absorption of gamma rays by nuclei without energy loss.

Applications:

  • Studying iron-containing enzymes.
  • Geology (meteor and moon rock composition).
  • Analyzing magnetic and structural properties of materials.

17. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

Principle: Uses nuclear spin in a magnetic field to study molecular structure.

Applications:

  • Protein structure determination.
  • Quality control in pharmaceuticals.
  • Studying solids using solid-state NMR.

18. Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES)

Principle: Based on photoelectric effect – electrons are ejected from a material when exposed to UV light.

Applications:

  • Determining oxidation states.
  • Studying corrosion and catalysis.
  • Semiconductor research.

19. Raman Spectroscopy

Principle: Analyzes scattered light, where a small fraction has different energy due to vibrational changes in molecules.

Applications:

  • Determining crystallinity and polymorphism.
  • Studying aqueous samples (advantage over IR).
  • Pharmaceutical quality control.

20. UV Spectroscopy

Principle: UV light excites electrons to higher energy levels, producing an absorption spectrum.

Applications:

  • Detecting impurities in organic compounds.
  • Studying reaction kinetics.
  • Quantitative analysis of compounds.

21. UV/Visible (UV/Vis) Spectroscopy

Principle: Measures absorption of light in UV and visible regions (200–800 nm).

Applications:

  • Identifying proteins and nucleic acids.
  • Quantification of biological samples.
  • Used in colorimetric assays.

22. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)

Principle: Uses X-rays to eject electrons, measuring their binding energies to analyze surfaces.

Applications:

  • Surface chemical analysis.
  • Determining electronic configuration.
  • Studying organic and inorganic substances.

Conclusion

Spectroscopy is an incredibly diverse and powerful tool in modern science. From analyzing proteins in biology to studying distant galaxies in astronomy, it provides critical insights into the composition, structure, and behavior of matter. Each type of spectroscopy has unique advantages and applications, making it essential across research, diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and industry.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is spectroscopy in simple words?
Spectroscopy is the study of how light interacts with matter, helping us identify what substances are made of.

Q2. Which type of spectroscopy is most commonly used in biology?
UV/Vis spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and NMR spectroscopy are widely used in biological studies.

Q3. How is spectroscopy used in medicine?
It is used in MRI scans, cancer detection, drug analysis, and studying biochemical changes in tissues.

Q4. What is the difference between absorption and emission spectroscopy?

  • Absorption spectroscopy measures how much light is absorbed by a sample.
  • Emission spectroscopy measures the light emitted by a sample when electrons return to lower energy states.

Q5. Can spectroscopy detect environmental pollutants?
Yes, spectroscopy techniques like AAS, IR, and fluorescence spectroscopy are widely used to detect heavy metals, gases, and toxins in air, water, and soil.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on Spectroscopy

Q1. What is spectroscopy in simple words?
Ans: Spectroscopy is the study of how light or electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter. It helps identify what substances are made of and what their structure is like.

Q2. What are the main types of spectroscopy?
Ans: The major types include absorption spectroscopy, emission spectroscopy, UV/Vis spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, NMR spectroscopy, Mass spectroscopy, and Fluorescence spectroscopy. Each type works on a different principle and has unique applications.

Q3. Which type of spectroscopy is most commonly used in biology?
Ans: UV/Vis spectroscopy, Fluorescence spectroscopy, and NMR spectroscopy are widely used in biology to study proteins, nucleic acids, and biomolecular interactions.

Q4. How is spectroscopy used in medicine?
Ans: Spectroscopy is used in MRI scans, cancer detection, metabolic profiling, drug testing, and studying tissue chemistry to aid diagnosis and treatment.

Q5. What is the difference between absorption and emission spectroscopy?

Ans:

  • Absorption spectroscopy measures how much light a substance absorbs.
  • Emission spectroscopy measures the light a substance emits when its electrons return to a lower energy state.

Q6. Can spectroscopy detect environmental pollutants?
Ans: Yes. Techniques like Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS), IR spectroscopy, and Fluorescence spectroscopy are commonly used to detect heavy metals, toxins, and pollutants in air, water, and soil.

Q7. What are the three main types of spectra?

Ans:

  1. Continuous spectrum – shows all wavelengths of light without gaps.
  2. Absorption spectrum – shows dark lines where light is absorbed.
  3. Emission spectrum – shows bright lines at specific wavelengths emitted by excited atoms.

Q8. Why is NMR spectroscopy important?
Ans: NMR provides detailed structural information about organic compounds and proteins. It is essential for determining 3D structures of biomolecules, drug development, and medical imaging.

Q9. What industries use spectroscopy the most?
Ans: Spectroscopy is heavily used in pharmaceuticals, food testing, forensic science, environmental monitoring, astronomy, and material sciences.

Q10. Can spectroscopy be used in everyday life?
Ans: Yes. It is applied in blood tests, water quality checks, food analysis, pollution monitoring, and even studying stars and planets.

Q11. What is the difference between UV and IR spectroscopy?

Ans:

  • UV spectroscopy studies electronic transitions in molecules (high-energy transitions).
  • IR spectroscopy studies vibrational transitions in bonds (lower-energy vibrations).

References

  1. Ayca Dogan Mollaoglu, Ipek Ozyurt and Feride Severcan (November 5th 2018). Applications of Infrared Spectroscopy and Microscopy in Diagnosis of Obesity, Infrared Spectroscopy – Principles, Advances, and Applications, Marwa El-Azazy, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.81216. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/infrared-spectroscopy-principles-advances-and-applications/applications-of-infrared-spectroscopy-and-microscopy-in-diagnosis-of-obesity
  2. Goodman B.A. (1994) Molecular spectroscopy: introduction and general principles. In: Wilson M.J. (eds) Clay Mineralogy: Spectroscopic and Chemical Determinative Methods. Springer, Dordrecht
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  4. L. Cheng, J.W. Prather II & Thomas A. Carlson(1975) Applications of Photoelectron Spectroscopy to Analytical Chemistry, C R C Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, 5:1, 37-85, DOI: 10.1080/10408347508542680.
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  6. Randviir, Edward & Banks, Craig. (2013). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy: An overview of bioanalytical applications. Analytical methods. 5. 1098-1115. 10.1039/c3ay26476a.
  7. Tognarelli, J. M., Dawood, M., Shariff, M. I., Grover, V. P., Crossey, M. M., Cox, I. J., Taylor-Robinson, S. D., & McPhail, M. J. (2015). Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Principles and Techniques: Lessons for Clinicians. Journal of clinical and experimental hepatology, 5(4), 320–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jceh.2015.10.006
  8. Wilson, K., Walker, J. (2018). Principles and Techniques of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Eighth edition. Cambridge University Press: New York.
  9. Wyroba E, Suski S, Miller K, Bartosiewicz R. Biomedical and agricultural applications of energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy in electron microscopy. Cell Mol Biol Lett. 2015;20(3):488-509. DOI:10.1515/cmble-2015-0028

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